 | Al Otaiba, Stephanie, and Fuchs, Douglas. “Characteristics of Children Who Are
Unresponsive to Early Literacy Intervention.” Remedial & Special Education
23.5 Sep/Oct 2002. Academic Search Elite. Central Oregon Community College
Library. April 20, 2003 <http://www.ebscohost.com>.
Research on unsuccessful readers begin at the first grade level and continue
throughout the child’s educational years if the problem is not addressed early on. In most cases, reading difficulties are associated with core deficits in phonological processing, therefore phonological awareness training in reading and writing are strongly suggested.
However, decoding and phonological awareness does not meet the needs of every child’s learning success. The authors’ study consisted of “phonological awareness and synthetic phonics”, “embedded phonics,” and “regular classroom support on phonological awareness and reading growth.” For five semesters, students received individualized instructional sessions from tutors and an aide, each session being 20-minutes long. Students who received phonemic decoding showed larger gains than students on real-word reading students whose growth was superior to the control group and regular classroom support. Those students who did not respond were considered instructionally disabled not reading disabled. The research shows that phonological awareness is an important element in reading. Other problems associated with reading difficulties are behavior, demographics, and being a minority. Seven characteristics that pertain to unresponsive treatment are: phonological awareness, phonological memory, rapid naming, intelligence, attention or behavior, orthographic processing, and demographics.
This is a very in dept article with much research addressing the need to recognize characteristics in children who are likely to have reading difficulties. The authors promote phonological awareness training especially when reading and writing are involved, however continue to do research in this area. Important points mentioned in the article that supports my research is poor segmentation and spelling skills. The article consists of 23 studies that will provide evidence to support the importance of early literacy interventions in order to education children to become reading literate.
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| Asselin, Marlene. “Comprehension instruction: Direction from Research.
Teacher Librarian 29.4 April 2002. Academic Search Elite. Central
Oregon Community College Library. April 20, 2003. <http://www.ebscohost.com. >.
This article is based on research from 1975 to 2000. Asselin’s focus is based on two main streams: processes used by proficient readers; and instructional strategies that improve students’ comprehension. The process of reading comprehension has to do with the readers prior knowledge therefore, will vary among readers. Schema is one type of theory that has to do with the readers’ background knowledge and structure, which influences the readers’ interpretation. Prepositional theory has to do with the “meaning construction” relating “key ideas” with the “whole” text. Whereas inference is the background knowledge of the reader and connections made “between character traits and character actions or between the plot and the resolution of a story” Asselin. Strategies mentioned by Asselin had to do with purpose, preview of text, reading selectively, acquired knowledge connected with prior knowledge, predictions, revising prior knowledge based on newly acquired knowledge, meaning of new vocabulary, key points, text quality, post review of text, and ways to apply new knowledge. The second main stream The three strands of instructional strategies according to Durkin are: use of single instructional strategies; use of multi-dimensional strategies; and use of direct instruction to teach the strategies. The first strategy activates background knowledge, ask questions while reading, make images while reading, summarizes, and analyzes the story. The multi-dimensional strategy combines two or more of the single instructional strategies. The direct instruction to teach strategies concerns “how teachers’ cognitive modeling of reading strategies” (p 56) impact their students. The article concludes by stating that it is imperative to fully develop a students reading comprehension abilities. With over 30 years of research educators need to “adjust instruction to a long-term developmental view” and specifically “acquisition of fluent decoding skills to free cognitive space for
comprehension; schema and vocabulary development to facilitate connections to text concepts; and comprehension processes used by proficient readers” Asselin.
The article was a good resource for my thesis, but I was disappointed because there were no records of research with statistics. The information is current and follows the same theory of instruction in regards to reading comprehension and states that reading comprehension is not adequate in today’s school curriculum, which is my mainly my thesis.
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| Baron, Dennis. “Will Anyone Accept the good News on Literacy?” Chronicle of
Higher Education 48.21 February 01, 2002. Academic Search Elite. Central
Oregon Community College Library. April 20, 2003.
<http://www.ebscohost.com>.
According to Baron’s article in 1992 the government made a most alarming statement saying that “one-half of adult Americans were functionally illiterate.” This was the another beginning for school reform and is the reason for increased testing in our school systems. Although more recent records dispute these findings the article concludes by stating low scores have improved yet socio-economic status is the same. Stating that individuals with low scores still earn less, usually have limited education, less likely to vote, and do not read newspapers. Baron continues by saying there is a lack of concern to implement ways to improve reading skills, or how to deal with the diverseness within our school systems, or how to equal out the economic gap between the literate and illiterate.
Baron’s article is a great resource to emphasize the need to instruct reading programs for all children that promote literacy. This article will help support my thesis on the importance of reading comprehension/literacy.
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| Blachovicz, Camille, and Donna Ogle. Reading Comprehension: Strategies for
Independent Learners. New York: The Guilford Press, 2001.
Blachovicz and Ogle present an overview of reading comprehension and current reading comprehension strategies. It is described how we can learn about reading comprehension from good readers. Good readers generally have a preference in reading material, a style of engagement, and possess certain strategies. Blachowicz and Ogle express the importance of reading comprehension by stating “We need to have a clear sense of the range of strategies all readers should have at their disposal, and to insure that our students develop these” (p. 13). The authors discuss ways to set-up an effective classroom for comprehension instruction, mainly organization, a variety of reading material, organization of instructional time for reading. Reading should be independent, as well as teacher-guided with an emphasis on discussion, writing, and word study. Assessment of reading comprehension help us to learn how our students are able to develop comprehension strategies that work and determine students who need instructional guidance. Informational reading strategies are explained and help determine whether students will be successful throughout their schooling. Reading fiction is also explored in this book as well as vocabulary development. Blachowicz and Ogle explain,
“Since comprehension is a process, the learning of constructive and metacognitive strategies for word learning is also critical” (p164). The book concludes by emphasizing the importance of strategies that promote lifelong reading. The authors point out, “In the process of students’ becoming lifelong readers, interest (which drives purpose) and self-awareness and confidence as readers are big keys” (p 242). Some suggestions that seem to work are: models of literate behavior; personal self-awareness as readers and writers; access to materials and experiences in using these materials; variety of reading material and time; and conscious literacy connections from school to home, community, work, and other groups.
The book is an excellent book that presents strategies for reading comprehension. The importance of reading comprehension is discussed and is the primary purpose of my research. The authors follow-up with strategies that promote the purpose of reading and ways to improve the reading comprehension capabilities in future students.
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| Ciborowski, Jean. Textbooks and the Students Who Cant’s Read Them: A Guide to
Teaching Content. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books, 1992.
This book is designed to help teachers teach textbook content in a way that triggers students to engage in the learning process, because textbooks most often do not lend themselves to easy reading, writing, and learning. Ciborowski is especially interested in students who have difficulties with reading comprehension. Ciborowski discusses two major shifts in the way we think about low readers and textbook learning:
1. Students, even those with low reading skills, can learn to use the mainstream
textbooks more effectively, and
2. textbooks can be designed to make them more usable not only for low readers, but for all students.
This book also describes two practices that teachers should consider. One is instructional techniques to improve understanding of textbooks; and secondly, consumer skills that teachers could use when selecting textbooks for all students. The three phase process includes preparing students to read the text before they actually read it, with a focus on their prior knowledge with the purpose of the reading. The second phase is referred to as “Strategy Instruction” a process that takes time and modeling, with a focus on information that is important and relevant. The final phase consists of the student “consolidating” and “extending” their textbook knowledge. Students need to make sense of all the information and understand how it relates with each other. Students should be encourage to read more material. The final chapter discusses some of the barriers teachers are faced with when selecting a textbook. Teachers need time to review textbooks and special education teachers should be involved in this process too! First teachers should select books that reflect the three phase method of teaching textbooks. Second look for questions and activities that reinforce the important information. Third look for books that are interesting to read and engage children in the reading process, graphics and illustrations should meaningful and complement the reading material,
This book overall was quick and easy to read, with a lot of useful suggestions.
There was a strong emphasis on reading for children who have difficulties, but the author strongly encourages this approach for all readers. The breakdown of the chapter contents were well designed with many examples to copy and use. I thought it was nice, that as the reader, I was encouraged to make copies of the forms used for this program.
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| Clay, Marie M. Reading Recovery: A Guidebook for Teachers in Training.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Education, 1994.
Clay addresses clearly the need for teachers to meet individual differences in children who are entering school. Teachers need to be able to observe each student’s responses and progress in their first year of school so that those students who need special help are identified before moving onto the next grade level. Clay’s program is based on two assumptions: detailed observation of that child as a reader and writer, with particular attention on what that child can do and secondly to know how children who become readers learn to read and how children who become writers learn to write. It is suggested that appropriate reading material should be read with at least 90% accuracy. It is important that children do not memorize stories rather they should be able to look at the pictures and tell you about the story. The teacher can follow up with the child’s response and model what the story is saying. Clay also emphasizes one on one teaching with children who have difficulty learning to determine where the student is in their learning program. Another important issue stressed is letting the student learn how to correct oneself. Teachers need to be patient, giving students time to sound out words. The teacher can ask questions that stimulate critical thinking skills and interest in the student’s mind.
Clay’s book is a structured reading recovery program that has many different suggestions for teaching children to read. I agree with her that a child’s learning pattern needs to be observed the first year they enter the school system in order to help keep them on track and at grade level. Clay gave many examples and case studies to show how her program can be beneficial for most any student. Clay's book was easy to read and understand, she also stresses the importance in learning to read with comprehension.
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| Coyne, Michael E., et al. “Prevention and Intervention in Beginning Reading: Two
Complex Systems.” Learning Disabilities Research & Practice 16.2 May 2001.
Academic Search Elite. Central Oregon Community College Library.
April 20, 2003 <http://www.ebscohost.com>.
The two systems addressed deal with prevention and intervention in reading skills for children with learning disabilities. Mainly the “complex alphabetic writing system and our equally complex schools.” The research consists of two sets of organizing principles. The first set includes six principles that prevent and intervene at the instructional level. They include big ideas, mediated scaffolding, conspicuous strategies, strategic integration, primed background knowledge, and judicious review. Teachers who highlight the important ideas help children to focus and provide personal guidance which produces learners. A good strategy should be systematic and sequential, yet simple as well as complex. Therefore, by combining information that is meaningful the student gains more complex knowledge and understanding that is easier to retain and apply to future learning and/or reinforcement of learned material. The second set deals with effective reading practices at the school-building level. The three areas that are structured around each other are: “the schoolwide establishment of long-germ reading goals and intermediate performance benchmarks; the early identification and frequent monitoring of students experiencing reading difficulties; and the development of coordinated and differentiated instructional interventions for the full range of learners.”
The authors of this article have a great concern with the philosophy of teaching reading in a way that is effective so that all children learn how to read.
This article is a great resource for my research. The authors pulled their resources and consulted with other books, journals, and previous studies in this area of learning. The focus primarily is to prevent reading difficulties and to develop ways to help teachers teach reading. The breakdown of the article is easy to read and to understand.
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| Downing, Joyce Anderson and et. al. “Teaching Text Structure to Improve Reading
Comprehension.” Intervention in School & Clinic 37.4 229-234 March 2002.
Academic Elite Search. Central Oregon Community College Library.
April 20, 2003 <http://www.ebsco.com>.
This article discusses the importance of teaching text structure to improve reading comprehension. According to the authors, “Children learn to read by being read to and being involved in the reading process.” An important concern for teachers is that children learn to read narrative prose, but are unfamiliar with expository prose—a reading process required by most textbooks. The difference between expository prose and narrative prose is the organization and structure, which tends to be inconsistent and unpredictable. In addition, the text is often poor and inadequate. This is one reason why children have difficulties in reading comprehension. It is necessary for children to learn specific strategies that allow them to identify the different types of text structure and to apply appropriate structure-specific strategies. There are five types of expository text structures discussed: the main idea, list, order compare/contrast, and classification. Instructions should include time to discuss the purpose of structure and strategy; modeling with examples and nonexamples; guided practice; independent practice; and an evaluation of student progress checking for comprehension.
This informative article provided instructional techniques to help children understand and learn various strategies to be used as tools in order to recognize the different structures of expository prose. Use of these strategies can help improve a students reading comprehension of expository prose.
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| Graham, Steve, et al. “Contribution of Spelling Instruction to the Spelling, Writing and
Reading of Poor Spellers.” Journal of Educational Psychology 94 (2002):
669 - 686.
The authors’ purpose for this study was to gain information about students who have difficulties with spelling and how it affects their writing. They based their studies on three main objectives: “the relationship between spelling and the process of writing” (669); “the link between spelling and writing.” (670), and “the impact of supplementary spelling instruction on the writing performance of young children who were poor spellers” (670). It was noted that teachers who grade papers and assign a grade value normally give higher scores to papers with fewer spelling errors. Therefore, students spend more time on spelling correctly instead of composing a paper that expresses their ideas coherently. Students who have difficulty spelling are more likely to avoid writing because they have no confidence in their writing abilities. Students were placed in spelling instruction groups, which provided eight hours of additional studies as well as their classroom spelling time. These lessons incorporated the skills of writing quality and sentence structure with less spelling demands. However, the authors do believe that spelling aids children with the ability to become better readers. Students have more resources to pull from to be able to decode unfamiliar words due to letter recognition, sound, and word patterns. Spelling also seems to correlate with understanding words in content making memorization of words easier. Another theory believed is that spelling can help overcome reading disabilities. The lesson plan consisted of 48 lessons divided into eight units. Various games and activities were encouraged to teach children how words are similar and different from each other, vowel and consonant sounds, and other special features or words and patterns. A very important part of this study was the training teachers received before implementing the program and the importance of modeling. Children were tested before they entered the program, during the program, and at the conclusion of the study. There was a six-month follow up test to see what children retained from these supplementary lessons and overall all students had improved and increased their spelling skills as time went on, although there were no significant gains in writing with fluency or reading. However, over a one-year period students did show development in the length of their papers and the quality of their work. In conclusion, it is believed that spelling instruction should not be dismissed by the whole-language and process writing approaches. Students need time to learn and focus on spelling skills.
This article is very informative and supports the concept that spelling should be integrated with reading and writing skills. The article proved that students can improve their writing skills, as well as the confidence to become better learners.
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| Harvey, Stephanie. “Questioning the Text.” Teaching; Reading Comprehension;
Questioning 110.8 May/June 2001. Master FILE Premier. Central Oregon
Community College Library. April 20, 2003 <http://www.ebsco.com>.
The author, Harvey, presents “A surefire strategy to improve students’ reading comprehension.” The strategy lesson discussed in this article requires the reader to “question the text.” Harvey models this strategy—she read aloud, stops, looks at her students, and shares her thinking. She refers to this as an inner conversation and states that it is the best method to make reading concrete. Harvey continues to explain the four steps of this strategy. The first step is choosing the text. A short book can be read quickly and allows time to explore questions that generate relatively easy answers. Picture books, mysteries and nonfiction prompt questions and stirs the mind. In the second step you introduce the strategy. Harvey explains to her students how good readers ask questions when they read, these questions help to understand the reading material. Asking questionings also keeps your interest and allows you to think about vocabulary and ideas you read. Asking questions can also help students if they become confused. The third step consists of modeling thinking aloud and to mark the text with stick-on-notes. Teachers can model this by writing a simple question on a stick-on-note, then mark the text where the question arises. In the fourth step the teacher needs to allow time for guided practice. Students are given time to jot down their questions, share them with the class, and time to discuss their concerns about what was read. Then students are asked to do independent studies—writing down more questions. Harvey says she walks around the classroom and discusses questions with students individually concentrating on their understanding of the material.
Harvey’s useful strategies help to improve reading comprehension. By following her examples and modeling this strategy—questioning, writing questions, marking the text, and practice, students become more involved in their reading and improve their reading comprehension.
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| Hodges, Richard E. Spelling. ERIC Digests. ED250695: 1984.
24 April 2003 http://www.ericfacility.net/ericdigest/ed250695
According to Hodges, spelling traditionally has been regarded as a “memorization” process. Spelling is defined as “oral language to visual form” represented by symbols put on paper. Charles Read conducted a study “to examine how children learn to spell.” Read’s study consisted of twenty children from the ages of four to eight years old. It was observed that the children identified and named the letters of the alphabet, thus the children related “letter names” to sounds and words. This enabled the children to invent ways to spell words in their writings. Read recognized that children use information they acquire and then apply intuitive knowledge in order to spell words. It is also noted that the “relationships between speech and writing are qualitatively different” in comparison from children to adults, mainly emphasizing that learning to write is a “developmental process.” In 1979, Templeton did a study on older students’ spelling strategies. He believes that spelling has to do with phonological and visual knowledge of words. He also contends that “extensive prior experiences” in reading and writing are key factors to one’s spelling skills. The concluding paragraphs focus on the need to learn about “written language in everyday use” and that children are in control of their own learning. If children are given time to read and experience writing on an everyday basis they will be able to develop the skills necessary to become good readers and writers.
Hodges article reinforces my research study of reading, writing, and spelling. Mostly that spelling is not a memorization process, rather developmental and prior knowledge. It seems to confirm with other resources that vocabulary has to do with language and the more experience children have with language, oral and/or written, the child is more prepared they are to explore writing and reading.
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| Honig, Bill. “Resesarch-based reading instruction: The Right Way.” Education Digest
63.4 December 97. Academic Search Elite. Central Oregon Community College
Library. April 20, 2003 <http://www.ebsco.com>.
In order for children to be successful in their education they need to learn how to read. The inner-city schools reflect that 70 to 80% of children are unable to read and understand grade-appropriate material in comparison to 30% of suburban schools. This article continues by saying that these problems can be prevented if schools applied a strong reading instruction program. Teachers need to observe students who struggle with reading in the upper grades. According to 10,000 teachers and research the classic student with reading difficulties display these characteristics: poor decoding skills; weak vocabulary; the inability to read strategically and actively; poor spelling; too few reading opportunities outside of school; poor motivation; lack of confidence, and behavioral issues. These characteristics lend itself to reading failure. Through research there is an explanatory theory that explains why poor readers exhibit just behaviors. It first acknowledged that proficient readers have word recognition that is automatic and secondly a proficient reader is able to use the word or passage in a meaningful way. Students who spend their time on decoding words lose the meaning of the passage. Reading programs should include automatic word recognition and passage comprehension. Students should also be encouraged to read independently outside the classroom. By assessing a students’ reading abilities teachers can make observations on what works and what does not work; immediately following up with a strategy that will work for each student to prevent reading difficulties.
This is the article I needed! It is from 1997, but it has some percentages that I can use in my paper to support the importance reading! The article provides information as to where a child should be for their age and grade level. The author stresses the importance of reaching these children in the early years to prevent reading failure in the upper grade levels.
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| Invernizzi, Marcia A., et al. “Integrated Word Study: Spelling, Grammar, and Meaning
in the Language Arts Classroom.” Language Arts 74 (1997): 185 - 192.
The relationship between spelling, word meaning, and grammar were the key point in this article. Techniques to show how “word study” can influence a students understanding and the importance of these relationships is explained. Word grouping and categorizing words were two examples of word study. Students investigate and explore the meaning and the grammatical functions of words in a meaningful way for them. This is a tool that can be used with Integrated Language Arts Unit—for example History and narrative writing—dialect. Both avenues teach children words used in context and how they can be used out of context. A history lesson usually has key words to focus and can be used as the spelling list for students. Words in a narrative taught children about language from the past or from a different region. This is a harder technique but children learn how to decode words and understand the meaning in its context. The three reasons for this approach was to integrate word-level skills within the context of reading and writing, word study imitates cognitive learning process at a level tat is understandable to the student, and it is a hands-on, student-centered, developmentally appropriate way to learn. This method increases word knowledge at the same time they learn to read and write. The work is also more meaningful for spelling, reading, and writing. The process is repetitive, but encompasses grammar, literary analysis and writing. Word study is a tool that shows spelling patterns and word structure that reflect meaning and use. The cognitive learning process is being able to recognize similarities and differences in words. It allows students to discriminate and make critical evaluations of how words are spelled, structure, and their meanings and use. It also increases the comprehension skills. Since this approach is student-centered, it is more developmentally appropriate for how children learn to read, write, and understand written words. As far as spelling errors the words were spelled correctly within the text so there was less chance of errors. Students also read the words in their text and then used them out of text to make connections with spelling and meaning both in the and out of text. Teachers can manipulate the direction of goals of the center—but the students do the work. Word study is thought to be an effective method to improve/increase vocabulary, sensitivity to word choice in reading and writing, and how English words function in language arts programs.
This was my favorite article. I thought the whole approach made perfect sense. They explained how to use the program, gave many examples, and most important the information was so positive. The main objective was focused for all students to learn equally in a positive environment and to get the most out of their learning experience. I would recommend this article to all teachers.
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| O’Donnell, Michael P., and Margo Wood. Becoming A Reader: A Developmental
Approach to Reading Instruction. 2nd ed., Needham Heights, MA: Allyn &
Bacon, 1999.
This book opens by stating “Americans are engaged in a “reading war” a quote from Vacca, 1996. It proceeds with the fact that educators argue amongst themselves about what and how to teach. Phonics and whole language seem to be major issues about what is best for children as well as where is the teaching of reading headed. Over time researchers in the field of cognition, linguistics, and child development have come to better understand literacy acquisition. The first major understanding is “that reading is an active, meaning-building process and second that literacy acquisition is a form of language acquisition governed by principles that apply to all language learning (2). Children need to be exposed to literature that is enjoyable to them this will promote a meaning-making process, sight vocabulary, and the ability to identify unfamiliar words, (93). As children become more confident in their reading skills they begin to read “independently” which leads to reading fluency. Students should be “directed and guided” in their development of independent reading by discussing and sharing what they read and other various reading activities. Reading comprehension should include “concept building/vocabulary development, effective reading of texts, and study strategies (p149). Vocabulary development is considered a lifelong process and teachers should encourage their students to “build understandings of words and to acquire strategies for independent use, (170). Teacher-directed guidance develops awareness of text structures and comprehension from questions that increase reader-text interaction. The purpose of study-skills is to encourage “independent and efficient learners” (p214). By previewing text, organizing and summarizing material, retaining and using new concepts promote competencies. Therefore, it is imperative that teachers demonstrate and model these approaches to instill good reading and studying habits for their students. As students development into fluent readers, they are better able to handle reading material that is assigned by the teacher. Students are then considered to be “truly strategic readers” (259). Once a student has reached this stage in their reading ability they will most likely be self-motivated to become “lifelong readers”(259). In assessing students’ literacy objectives, teachers need to have programs that promote data that entails “appropriate instruction” (p300). The final chapters deal with Organizing and Managing Classroom Reading Instruction.
A great resource that has case studies to use as references in my research for reading literacy comprehension. Each chapter leads to the next stage developmentally, however it is suggested to read the first two chapters and to use the rest of the book for your specific purpose. I also liked reading the bibliography at the end of each chapter to compare their resources with authors I am using. Throughout the book various questions have been asked that have helped me to formulate questions I need to focus on for my research paper.
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| Pinnell, Gay Su, and Irene C. Fountas. Word Matters: Teaching Phonics and Spelling in
the Reading/Writing Classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1998.
The first chapter list eight principles of literacy learning and emphasizes the need for students “to become effective readers and writers” (p3). According to Pinnell the eight principles are:
1. The need to understand the purpose of literacy.
2. The need to hear written language to learn its structure and to gain information and ideas.
3. The need to become aware of sounds of language, to enjoy it, and to use it as a tool in becoming literate.
4. The need to experiment with written symbols to see how letters look, and how to use them to read and write.
5. The need to explore words and how they work in order to use them effectively and efficiently for reading and writing.
6. The need to learn the basic principles of print and how books work to use the knowledge as readers and writers.
7. The need to continually write to broaden their knowledge about letters, sound, words, and language.
8. The need to develop flexibility and fluency to improve comprehension to enjoy reading and writing.
The chapter continues by explaining each principle in detail and how teachers can implement each one as a “profession development.” The focus of chapter two is
“Designing a Quality Literacy Program” and a quote from Clay saying that “readers must read with divided attention to so9lve words without losing meaning or fluency. Clay continues to express the need to “construct words without losing the message they want to convey (3). One important point stressed was educating parents and getting them involved in their child’s learning to read and write. The last two chapters give teachers support in “conceptualizing a continuum of learning, assessing the progress of a cohort of children, and connecting to children’s homes” (247). Five steps are presented, but it is also noted that this word study approach is not the answer to assuring literate children. However, through a well designed approach, analysis of classroom environment, time, and parents goals can be reached to teach children literacy.
This is an excellent book that every teacher should read and use as a classroom tool. Each section is broke down into chapters that can be integrated with other teaching methods used by teachers. I am know I will check this book out again for personal use as well. The reading was easy and well designed in highlighting specific points. The appendix has worksheets that can be copied for use in the classroom.
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| Popplewell, Scott R. and Deborah E. Doty. “Classroom Instruction and Reading
Comprehension: A Comparison of One Basal Reader Approach and the Four-Blocks Framework.” Reading Psychology 22.2 April/June 2001, 83 – 94.
Academic Elite Search. Central Oregon Community College Library.
April 20, 2003 <http://www.ebsco.com>.
Popplewell and Doty describe a comparison study they conducted to
analyze which approach—the basal reader or the Four-Blocks framework—had more impact on students’ reading comprehension. “This study was designed to investigate the comparison of reading comprehension as measured by oral retellings and comprehension questions” (p. 84). The subjects of this study consisted of second-grade students. School A implemented the Four-Blocks framework and School B used the basal reader approach. The Four-Blocks framework consists of several approaches to reading. The framework is multilevel and reaches different levels of readers. The four elements include: the guided-reading block; the self-selected reading block; the writing block; and the working with words block. The Basal Reader Approach involves having the teacher introduce the story, vocabulary words in a list and in a sentence, vocabulary meaning within the text along with a workbook to use as a practice guide. Tools used to measure reading comprehension were retelling and comprehension questions. According to the authors “a significant difference in mean retelling scores between the students in the two schools” (p. 90). The students who received the Four-Blocks framework instruction (School A) scored higher in retellings than the students who received the Basal Reader Approach (School B). In addition, students from School A scored significantly higher than students from School B. Through modeling and strategies used in this instructional framework teachers can help children with reading comprehension.
The authors’ analysis of research proved to be significant to the subject area of reading comprehension. The Four-Blocks framework proved to be an effective and useful strategy to improve reading comprehension compared to the Basal Reader Approach.
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| Rief, Sandra F. “Written Language Strategies.” How to Reach and Teach ADD/ADHD
Children. West Nyack, NY: Center for Applied Research in Education, 1993.
71 – 82.
Children who have learning disabilities and/or attention deficit disorders have weak spelling skills. They do not focus on visual detail so are unable to recognize or bring to mind the letters and sequence of words or patterns. One suggestion is to use “high frequency words, which is 90% of words most used by adults. A good resource is “Instant Spelling Words for Writing” 800-225-0248. Other tools that can be used are computers, allowing students to print, and have examples of format required. Anita Archer and Mary Gleason have a resource book “Skills for School Success.” Consistency in curriculum is also helpful for the student. Peer tutoring is also beneficial for proofreading papers and since writing is a process, it should not be burden with editing for spelling, mechanics and organization in all written assignments. The writing process should consist of eight steps:
1. prewriting – for oral and/or written experiences
2. writing – prewriting is developed with a specific purpose and awareness of
audience
3. responding – feedback from peers that are positive and constructive
4. revising – expanding on ideas, organization, deleting or substituting
information
5. editing – the final draft of a paper, but not necessary for all work.
6. developing skills – teacher orientated, a guide for teachers to teach skills
students show weakness in the writing process
7. evaluation – do not correct all errors on every paper
8. post writing – allowing students to share their writings, or to be published
Allowing students to make diagrams to brainstorm topics that interest them and organize their thoughts are helpful tools. A thesaurus is a good resource to help students build their vocabulary and teaching about metaphors and similes and examples of sensory descriptor phrases. Have the students close their eyes to visualize a scene they want to write about or read them a passage and have them write what it might look like. Let the students have a folder that they can jot down topics for future writings. Daily journaling is a good way to develop fluency in writing. Have “buddy journals” letting students write back and forth to each other, conversing through writing, a good motivation to write and build self-esteem. Dictate or write a sentence and let the students make the corrections.
This was a great chapter that should be used for any level writing class. All the basic writing skills were used for the learning disabled as is for all writers. The most important issue about the writing process is to not overwhelm the student with correcting every error. Let the student build on his/her skills so they gain confidence in their writing skills.
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| Rosencrans, G. The Spelling Book: Teaching Children How to Spell, Not What
To Spell. Newark: The International Reading Association, 1998.
Methods of word study, whole-class, and group activities are methodologies that compliment this book and the lessons designed in this chapter. The chapter addressed an important question—Why teach spelling? Teachers need to set goals for themselves as well as their students. The goal of the lesson is to encourage good/better spelling in their writing, but without the emphasis of memorizing spelling, rather to encourage an understanding of how words are spelled and why. The goals are intended to motivate students to spell and understand the importance of spelling correctly. Factors that influence spelling are positive attitudes and confidence in taking risk, thought processes and word knowledge. Teachers need to have resources that are effective for their students needs. A key element to a students learning environment is giving them control of their work—it gives them independence. Allow classroom time to discuss and think about strategies that can be used to promote better spellers. Spelling lessons should include a variety of activities that recognize word patterns that can be generalized or connections can be made. This is a directional approach, but students can learn the structure of words. Learning can be individualized, small groups, even mini-lessons, depending on the purpose of the lesson and its goals. Journals are a useful tool suggested to use. The journal would consists of words for that student and include their observation of the word and their understanding of the word in the English language. The book in general can be implemented with other methodologies as well as a resource of Black Line Masters.
This book was very informative and addressed the issues of why spelling should be taught with a focus on how to teach it. The methods suggested were based upon research so no one method was used. I think this is one reason why I really like the book as a whole. The first few chapters focused on the development of learning to spell and methods that can be incorporated for each of the stages in learning to spell. Each chapter concluded with the overall objective and its strategies. Besides providing guided lesson plans, black line masters were included at the end of the text to be use with the lessons from the book. Another great resource I would recommend to first year teachers and to veteran teachers.
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| Routman, R. Literacy at the Crossroads: Crucial Talk About Reading, Writing
and Other Teaching Dilemmas. Portsmouth: Heinemann, 1996, 105-123.
Parents need to be informed about the developmental process of learning to spell. Teachers can share research information about the program and explain what, why, and how the program works. Parents and teachers need to be informed that invented spelling does not mean “anything goes”, but allows children to write freely, to express their thoughts without the burden to spell every little word correctly. The developmental program has increased the amount of writing done in class, which means children are taking more risks, and producing work that is more interesting. Although, children should be expected to spell words correctly that are appropriate for their grade level, realizing that the developmental process is a gradual process. Children should see themselves as writers. Teachers can encourage invented spelling in a reasonable matter with high expectation. Educators should provide time to discover, discuss, analyze, and as children move up in grade levels, so should their vocabulary knowledge and usage. We need to make students accountable for their learning. Teachers should also model reading and writing skills, this helps to develop pride in one’s work. Have a set of core words that students need to know how to spell for each grade level. Students need to read and write daily—in a meaningful way. Make sure drafts are legible—no sloppy work accepted. Then after they have done their editing help them with the final draft with correct spelling. Send home final drafts regularly so parents see their child’s work. Ultimately share your knowledge and goals as a teacher—your expectations of student work. Mostly do not give up on spelling methods, keep looking/researching for other methods that can be incorporated in your lesson plans.
Literacy at the Crossroads is a good resource book with lots of information about the different approaches that have been used throughout the years of education. Even political issues are presented and it is effect on education. I appreciated the positive attitude of all the information represented. Each approach was explained, with examples of how the program should look in the classroom, and a follow up explaining why, when, and how that specific program can be useful. The book did not address any one-grade level, but showed how some programs could be more effective for a specific age/grade group. I would recommend this book to all educators and future educators. It had some great ideas and examples to learn from.
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| Schuster, J. “Away With Words?” Learning. August 1996:
Judy Schuster is a technology consultant who believes that multimedia encyclopedias are much more entertaining than encyclopedias on a bookshelf. She claims they are more attractive and provides opportunity to create multimedia projects. The CD-ROMs have a lot of information available that blend text with picture, sound, and full-motion video. This method of teaching is considered a useful tool to many different learning styles in many subject areas. It is a great way to discover new things and allows the student to narrow or expand on the topic of interest. When it comes to word meaning and or spelling students can highlight or consult the glossaries. Students can explore at their own pace. It was stated that teachers need to give instructions and goals for students to accomplish and that you need to give students the time required for this type of learning.
Overall, this article did nothing for my topic. I agree using multimedia is more stimulating for students, but to replace it for a teaching tool or teaching method I do not agree. I think computers should be in every classroom and children should learn how to use them, but I think it should be used as a reward for finishing your work. The work can have certain expectations so students do not rush through the exercise with little or no effort put into the quality or the content of the work. I do think there are exceptions to these rules—bad penmanship, disabilities, or a research project. I personally thought Judy was selling her products of CD-ROMs and has no actually teaching experience. I guess I would need to see more research in regards to the success in these types of theories. Another problem with this theory is money and budgets. I do not think schools and classrooms can afford computers for all their students. The article was not as informative as I would have liked it to be, but it was an interesting thought.
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| Talbot, V. Teaching, Reading, Writing and Spelling: All You Need to Succeed.
Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press, Inc., 1997.
This is a resource book for phonics in reading and spelling designed for first grade teachers. It has a list of thing teachers should prepare and have done before the first day of school, a twenty-day lesson plan, and follow ups with ways to build skills related to each lesson plan. The section devoted to spelling is based on the dictation method. Therefore, it is believed that teachers need to teach spelling; students need to learn—structure of words and proper spelling. Spelling lists are suggested and preferably two lists—one for the better spellers and a list for those who need more time to absorb the learning process of spelling. It is also suggested that school districts should establish a specific spelling objective for all grade levels so teachers can compile a word list and dictation sentences to teach to the objectives. One small section is titled “‘Spelling’ Without spelling Books” and it consists of spelling rules and format for advanced spellers. Strategies for reading are incorporated with vocabulary development and comprehension as well as strategies for student with reading disabilities. One chapter was directed to training parents. Expectations that children should read every evening at home beginning in the first grade for ten minutes and increasing the time by ten minutes for each grade level up to fifty minutes for fifth grade students. Provided in the chapter were suggestions for “Back-to-School Night” and parent-teacher conference is to be used as training sessions. The book concluded with sample letters and forms to keep records of student performance and various master copies that can be reproduced for at home and in class resources.
Virginia Talbot has a very one-sided and straightforward approach to teaching. Her book had many great ideas and she did suggest to “thumb through the entire book first” to get an understanding of her teaching objectives. Overall, they were not to bad. I believe books like these are needed to help first year teachers who have no money to invest into learning materials for their classroom and she had a useful guideline of things to do before your first day of school with students. Although her message to train parents was rather aggressive, she is correct. Many parents just do not know what to do for their children and with some guidance and encouragement; I think teachers can be helpful in this area. Talbot’s purpose is to teach phonics and to use the book as a whole unit. Each lesson is designed to build from and to build on skills. However, I do recommend this book to any first year teacher. There are wonderful masters of worksheets to copy and good examples of form letters that teachers can use as guidelines. The format of her book was also very nice and easy to follow, so even if you do not subscribe to her theories she obviously is a talented woman and teacher with many good suggestions. I also like this saying she used in her introductory chapter
“First you “learn to read” and then you “read to learn.”
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| Terry, Bonnie. “Reading Fluency.” Educaton Clearinghouse. 1993 – 2003.24 April 2003 <www.educationclearinghouse.org>
The reason we need to increase “reading fluency” is to improve “reading comprehension. The ability to retrieve words and information automatically determines the efficiency of a reader. Terry’s focus is to improve reading fluency to encourage reading. She stresses the importance of reading to children when they are very young. According to Schriber reading has to do with “hearing the rhythm and flow of the language” in order to improve reading skills. Terry wrote a book titled, Five Minutes to Better Reading Skills. The four main points in her book are: phonological; perceptual; automaticity, and a record keeping system that monitors a student’s improvement. Terry concludes the article saying that her students learn to take notes on what they have read, and answer comprehension questions the next day so students learn to “build long term retention.” Terry has developed a complete reading comprehension program that she uses in her classroom and has received great recognition in the improvement of her students reading comprehension.
Terry’s article stresses the importance of “reading fluency” to improve “reading comprehension” which is the main point of my research paper. She has written other articles in collaboration with this one as well as implements her program in her classroom. I think this article could be very useful as a resource for my research paper.
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