Annotated Bibliography
Graham, Steve, et al. “Contribution of Spelling Instruction to the
Spelling, Writing and Reading of Poor Spellers.”
Journal of Educational Psychology 94 (2002): 669 - 686.
The authors’ purpose for this study was to gain information about students who have difficulties with spelling and how it affects their writing. They based their studies on three main objectives: “the relationship between spelling and the process of writing” (669); “the link between spelling and writing” (670), and “the impact of supplementary spelling instruction on the writing performance of young children who were poor spellers” (670). It was noted that teachers who grade papers and assign a grade value normally give higher scores to papers with fewer spelling errors. Therefore, students spend more time on spelling correctly instead of composing a paper that expresses their ideas coherently. Students who have difficulty spelling are more likely to avoid writing because they have no confidence in their writing abilities. Students were placed in spelling instruction groups, which provided eight hours of additional studies as well as their classroom spelling time. These lessons incorporated the skills of writing quality and sentence structure with less spelling demands. However, the authors do believe that spelling aids children with the ability to become better readers. Students have more resources to pull from to be able to decode unfamiliar words due to letter recognition, sound, and word patterns. Spelling also seems to correlate with understanding words in content making memorization of words easier. Another theory believed is that spelling can help overcome reading disabilities. The lesson plan consisted of 48 lessons divided into eight units. Various games and activities were encouraged to teach children how words are similar and different from each other, vowel and consonant sounds, and other special features or words and patterns. A very important part of this study was the training teachers received before implementing the program and the importance of modeling. Children were tested before they entered the program, during the program, and at the conclusion of the study. There was a six-month follow up test to see what children retained from these supplementary lessons and overall all students had improved and increased their spelling skills as time went on, although there were no significant gains in writing with fluency or reading. However, over a one-year period students did show development in the length of their papers and the quality of their work. In conclusion, it is believed that spelling instruction should not be dismissed by the whole-language and process writing approaches. Students need time to learn and focus on spelling skills.
This article is very informative and supports the concept that spelling should be integrated with reading and writing skills. The article proved that students can improve their writing skills, as well as the confidence to become better learners.
Hodges, Richard E. Spelling. ERIC Digests. ED250695: 1984.
24 April 2003.
<http://www.ericfacility.net/ericdigest/ed250695>
According to Hodges spelling traditionally has been regarded as a “memorization” process. Spelling is defined as “oral language to visual form” represented by symbols put on paper. Charles Read conducted a study “to examine how children learn to spell.” Read’s study consisted of twenty children from the ages of four to eight years old. It was observed that the children identified and named the letters of the alphabet, thus the children related “letter names” to sounds and words. This enabled the children to invent ways to spell words in their writings. Read recognized that children use information they acquire and then apply intuitive knowledge in order to spell words. It is also noted that the “relationships between speech and writing are qualitatively different” in comparison from children to adults, mainly emphasizing that learning to write is a "developmental process." In 1979, Templeton did a study on older students' spelling strategies. He believes that spelling has to do with phonological and visual knowledge of words. He also contends that “extensive prior experiences” in reading and writing are key factors to one’s spelling skills. The concluding paragraphs focus on the need to learn about “written language in everyday use” and that children are in control of their own learning. Therefore, they need the time to read and write on a daily basis.
Hodges article reinforces my research study of reading, writing, and spelling. Mostly that spelling is not a memorization process, rather developmental and prior knowledge. It seems to confirm with other resources that vocabulary has to do with language and the more experience children have with language, oral and/or written, the child is more prepared they are to explore writing and reading.
Invernizzi, Marcia A., et al. “Integrated Word Study: Spelling,
Grammar, and Meaning in the Language Arts Classroom.”
Language Arts 74 (1997). 85 - 192.
The relationship between spelling, word meaning, and grammar were the key point in this article. Techniques to show how “word study” can influence a students understanding and the importance of these relationships is explained. Word grouping and categorizing words were two examples of word study. Students investigate and explore the meaning and the grammatical functions of words in a meaningful way for them. This is a tool that can be used with Integrated Language Arts Unit—for example History and narrative writing—dialect. Both avenues teach children words used in context and how they can be used out of context. A history lesson usually has key words to focus and can be used as the spelling list for students. Words in a narrative taught children about language from the past or from a different region. This is a harder technique but children learn how to decode words and understand the meaning in its context. The three reasons for this approach was to integrate word-level skills within the context of reading and writing, word study imitates cognitive learning process at a level tat is understandable to the student, and it is a hands-on, student-centered, developmentally appropriate way to learn. This method increases word knowledge at the same time they learn to read and write. The work is also more meaningful for spelling, reading, and writing. The process is repetitive, but encompasses grammar, literary analysis and writing. Word study is a tool that shows spelling patterns and word structure that reflect meaning and use. The cognitive learning process is being able to recognize similarities and differences in words. It allows students to discriminate and make critical evaluations of how words are spelled, structure, and their meanings and use. It also increases the comprehension skills. Since this approach is student-centered, it is more developmentally appropriate for how children learn to read, write, and understand written words. As far as spelling errors the words were spelled correctly within the text so there was less chance of errors. Students also read the words in their text and then used them out of text to make connections with spelling and meaning both in the and out of text. Teachers can manipulate the direction of goals of the center—but the students do the work. Word study is thought to be an effective method to improve/increase vocabulary, sensitivity to word choice in reading and writing, and how English words function in language arts programs.
This was my favorite article. I thought the whole approach made perfect sense. They explained how to use the program, gave many examples, and most important the information was so positive. The main objective was focused for all students to learn equally in a positive environment and to get the most out of their learning experience. I would recommend this article to all teachers.
Rief, Sandra F. “Written Language Strategies.” How to Reach
and Teach ADD/ADHD Children (1993): 71 - 82
Children who have learning disabilities and/or attention deficits disorders have weak spelling skills. They do not focus on visual detail so are unable to recognize or bring to mind the letters and sequence of words or patterns. One suggestion is to use “high frequency words, which is 90% of words most used by adults. A good resource is “Instant Spelling Words for Writing” 800-225-0248. Other tools that can be used are computers, allowing students to print, and have examples of format required. Anita Archer and Mary Gleason have a resource book “Skills for School Success.” Consistency in curriculum is also helpful for the student. Peer tutoring is also beneficial for proofreading papers and since writing is a process it should not be burden with editing for spelling, mechanics and organization in all written assignments. The writing process should consist of eight steps:
1. prewriting – for oral and/or written experiences
2. writing – prewriting is developed with a specific purpose and awareness of audience
3. responding – feedback from peers that are positive and constructive
4. revising – expanding on ideas, organization, deleting or substituting information
5. editing – the final draft of a paper, but not necessary for all work.
6. developing skills – teacher orientated, a guide for teachers to teach skills students show weakness in the writing process
7. evaluation – do not correct all errors on every paper
8. post writing – allowing students to share their writings, or to be published
Allowing students to make diagrams to brainstorm topics that interest them and organize their thoughts are helpful tools. A thesaurus is a good resource to help students build their vocabulary and teaching about metaphors and similes and examples of sensory descriptor phrases. Have the students close their eyes to visualize a scene they want to write about or read them a passage and have them write what it might look like. Let the students have a folder that they can jot down topics for future writings. Daily journaling is a good way to develop fluency in writing. Have “buddy journals” letting students write back and forth to each other, conversing through writing, a good motivation to write and build self-esteem. Dictate or write a sentence and let the students make the corrections.
This was a great chapter that should be used for any level writing class. All the basic writing skills were used for the learning disabled as is for all writers. The most important issue about the writing process is to not overwhelm the student with correcting every error. Let the student build on his/her skills so they gain confidence in their writing skills.
Rosencrans, G. (1998). The Spelling Book: Teaching Children
How to Spell, Not What To Spell. Newark: The International
Reading Association, (21-42).
Methods of word study, whole-class, and group activities are methodologies that compliment this book and the lessons designed in this chapter. The chapter addressed an important question—Why teach spelling? Teachers need to set goals for themselves as well as their students. The goal of the lesson is to encourage good/better spelling in their writing, but without the emphasis of memorizing spelling, rather to encourage an understanding of how words are spelled and why. The goals are intended to motivate students to spell and understand the importance of spelling correctly. Factors that influence spelling are positive attitudes and confidence in taking risk, thought processes and word knowledge. Teachers need to have resources that are effective for their students needs. A key element to a students learning environment is giving them control of their work—it gives them independence. Allow classroom time to discuss and think about strategies that can be used to promote better spellers. Spelling lessons should include a variety of activities that recognize word patterns that can be generalized or connections can be made. This is a directional approach, but students can learn the structure of words. Learning can be individualized, small groups, even mini-lessons, depending on the purpose of the lesson and its goals. Journals are a useful tool suggested to use. The journal would consists of words for that student and include their observation of the word and their understanding of the word in the English language. The book in general can be implemented with other methodologies as well as a resource of Black Line Masters.
This book was very informative and addressed the issues of why spelling should be taught with a focus on how to teach it. The methods suggested were based upon research so no one method was used. I think this is one reason why I really like the book as a whole. The first few chapters focused on the development of learning to spell and methods that can be incorporated for each of the stages in learning to spell. Each chapter concluded with the overall objective and its strategies. Besides providing guided lesson plans, black line masters were included at the end of the text to be use with the lessons from the book. Another great resource I would recommend to first year teachers and to veteran teachers.
Routman, R. Literacy at the Crossroads: Crucial Talk About
Reading, Writing, and Other Teaching Dilemmas. Portsmouth:
Heinemann, 1996, 105-123.
Parents need to be informed about the developmental process of learning to spell. Teachers can share research information about the program and explain what, why, and how the program works. Parents and teachers need to be informed that invented spelling does not mean “anything goes”, but allows children to write freely, to express their thoughts without the burden to spell every little word correctly. The developmental program has increased the amount of writing done in class, which means children are taking more risks, and producing work that is more interesting. Although, children should be expected to spell words correctly that are appropriate for their grade level, realizing that the developmental process is a gradual process. Children should see themselves as writers. Teachers can encourage invented spelling in a reasonable matter with high expectation. Educators should provide time to discover, discuss, analyze, and as children move up in grade levels, so should their vocabulary knowledge and usage. We need to make students accountable for their learning. Teachers should also model reading and writing skills, this helps to develop pride in one’s work. Have a set of core words that students need to know how to spell for each grade level. Students need to read and write daily—in a meaningful way. Make sure drafts are legible—no sloppy work accepted. Then after they have done their editing help them with the final draft with correct spelling. Send home final drafts regularly so parents see their child’s work. Ultimately share your knowledge and goals as a teacher—your expectations of student work. Mostly do not give up on spelling methods, keep looking/researching for other methods that can be incorporated in your lesson plans.
Literacy at the Crossroads is a good resource book with lots of information about the different approaches that have been used throughout the years of education. Even political issues are presented and it is effect on education. I appreciated the positive attitude of all the information represented. Each approach was explained, with examples of how the program should look in the classroom, and a follow up explaining why, when, and how that specific program can be useful. The book did not address any one-grade level, but showed how some programs could be more effective for a specific age/grade group. I would recommend this book to all educators and future educators. It had some great ideas and examples to learn from.
Schuster, J (1996). Away With Words? Learning (August 1996).
Judy Schuster is a technology consultant who believes that multimedia encyclopedias are much more entertaining than encyclopedias on a bookshelf. She claims they are more attractive and provides opportunity to create multimedia projects. The CD-ROMs have a lot of information available that blend text with picture, sound, and full-motion video. This method of teaching is considered a useful tool to many different learning styles in many subject areas. It is a great way to discover new things and allows the student to narrow or expand on the topic of interest. When it comes to word meaning and or spelling students can highlight or consult the glossaries. Students can explore at their own pace. It was stated that teachers need to give instructions and goals for students to accomplish and that you need to give students the time required for this type of learning.Overall, this article did nothing for my topic. I agree using multimedia is more stimulating for students, but to replace it for a teaching tool or teaching method I do not agree. I think computers should be in every classroom and children should learn how to use them, but I think it should be used as a reward for finishing your work. The work can have certain expectations so students do not rush through the exercise with little or no effort put into the quality or the content of the work. I do think there are exceptions to these rules—bad penmanship, disabilities, or a research project. I personally thought Judy was selling her products of CD-ROMs and has no actually teaching experience. I guess I would need to see more research in regards to the success in these types of theories. Another problem with this theory is money and budgets. I do not think schools and classrooms can afford computers for all their students. The article was not as informative as I would have liked it to be, but it was an interesting thought.
Talbot, V. (1997). Teaching, Reading, Writing and Spelling: All
You Need to Succeed. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press, Inc.
This is a resource book for phonics in reading and spelling designed for first grade teachers. It has a list of thing teachers should prepare and have done before the first day of school, a twenty-day lesson plan, and follow ups with ways to build skills related to each lesson plan. The section devoted to spelling is based on the dictation method. Therefore, it is believed that teachers need to teach spelling; students need to learn—structure of words and proper spelling. Spelling lists are suggested and preferably two lists—one for the better spellers and a list for those who need more time to absorb the learning process of spelling. It is also suggested that school districts should establish a specific spelling objective for all grade levels so teachers can compile a word list and dictation sentences to teach to the objectives. One small section is titled “‘Spelling’ Without spelling Books” and it consists of spelling rules and format for advanced spellers. Strategies for reading are incorporated with vocabulary development and comprehension as well as strategies for student with reading disabilities. One chapter was directed to training parents. Expectations that children should read every evening at home beginning in the first grade for ten minutes and increasing the time by ten minutes for each grade level up to fifty minutes for fifth grade students. Provided in the chapter were suggestions for “Back-to-School Night” and parent-teacher conference is to be used as training sessions. The book concluded with sample letters and forms to keep records of student performance and various master copies that can be reproduced for at home and in class resources.
Virginia Talbot has a very one-sided and straightforward approach to teaching. Her book had many great ideas and she did suggest to “thumb through the entire book first” to get an understanding of her teaching objectives. Overall, they were not to bad. I believe books like these are needed to help first year teachers who have no money to invest into learning materials for their classroom and she had a useful guideline of things to do before your first day of school with students. Although her message to train parents was rather aggressive, she is correct. Many parents just do not know what to do for their children and with some guidance and encouragement; I think teachers can be helpful in this area. Talbot’s purpose is to teach phonics and to use the book as a whole unit. Each lesson is designed to build from and to build on skills. However, I do recommend this book to any first year teacher. There are wonderful masters of worksheets to copy and good examples of form letters that teachers can use as guidelines. The format of her book was also very nice and easy to follow, so even if you do not subscribe to her theories she obviously is a talented woman and teacher with many good suggestions. I also like this saying she used in her introductory chapter
“First you “learn to read” and then you “read to learn.”
Terry, Bonnie. “Reading Fluency.” Education Clearinghouse.
1993 – 2003 24 April 2003 <www.educationclearinghouse.org>
The reason we need to increase “reading fluency” is to improve “reading comprehension. The ability to retrieve words and information automatically determines the efficiency of a reader. Terry’s focus is to improve reading fluency to encourage reading. She stresses the importance of reading to children when they are very young. According to Schriber reading has to do with “hearing the rhythm and flow of the language” in order to improve reading skills. Terry wrote a book titled, Five Minutes to Better Reading Skills. The four main points in her book are: phonological; perceptual; automaticity, and a record keeping system that monitors a student’s improvement. Terry concludes the article saying that her students learn to take notes on what they have read, and answer comprehension questions the next day so students learn to “build long term retention.” Terry has developed a complete reading comprehension program that she uses in her classroom and has received great recognition in the improvement of her students reading comprehension.
Annotated Bibliography for Professor C. Agatucci
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I like the simplicity of this web resource. It is very easy to read and to move throughout the text. The format of the page is easy to read and allows me the freedom to scan an article for useful information. The choice of print format is also nice, as well as the number of pages that will be printed. I find this useful, mostly because I do not want to waste all my ink on 100 pages when all I need is paragraph or two of information. I also find that the use of this database gives me the most current information I need for my research work.
Martha Stewart, (2001). The marthastewart. com Web site.
Martha Stewart Living Omnimedia, Inc. (2001).
http://www.marthastewart.com/home.jhtml May 13, 2003.
I enjoy visiting Martha's website and browsing through it for recipes and craft ideas. Her page is very clean and refreshing, as well as easy to access information you want to look up. I enjoy printing out recipes, templates, and information I find resourceful for me and my lifestyle.
a hui hou!
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